The earliest humanlike creatures (hominids) lived in Africa some 3 to 4 million years ago. The first anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) appeared in Africa between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. The Paleolithic covers human history from 2,500,000 – 10,000 BCE and is marked by the use of stone tools. Paleolithic people lived in small bands, were nomadic, and were hunter-gatherers. The Neolithic Revolution, the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture, followed the end of the last ice age around 10,000 BCE. Systematic agriculture developed independently in different areas of the world between 8000 and 5000 BCE. Populations expanded and people began to live in settled communities. The Bronze Age, characterized by the use of bronze, is the period from around 3000 to 1200 BCE.
A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements. Historians have identified a number of basic characteristics of civilization, including the following:
- An urban focus.
- New political and military structures.
- A new social structure based on economic power.
- The development of more complexity in a material sense.
- A distinct religious structure.
- The development of writing.
- New forms of significant artistic and intellectual activity.
The first civilizations emerged in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China in the fourth and third millennia BCE. Perhaps the most important shared characteristic was that each developed in a river valley that was able to provide the agricultural resources needed to maintain a large population.
Mesopotamian civilizations included the Sumerian and the Akkadian. The oldest Mesopotamian texts date to around 3000 BCE and were written by the Sumerians in cuneiform script. Sargon was the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, beginning in 2340 BCE. In 1792 BCE, a new empire under Hammurabi came to control much of Mesopotamia. He is best remembered for his law code, the Code of Hammurabi.
Modern historians have divided Egyptian history into three major periods, known as the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom, separated by intervals of instability known as Intermediate Periods. The Old Kingdom encompassed the fourth through eighth dynasties of Egyptian kings, lasting from around 2575 to 2125 BCE. The largest pyramids in Egypt’s history were constructed during this period. The Great Pyramid of Giza was built under King Khufu, around 2540 BCE. The capital of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis. The Middle Kingdom lasted from around 2010 to 1630 BCE. Hieroglyphics emerged during the first two dynasties. The New Kingdom lasted from around 1539 to 1069 BCE. Some pharaohs of the New Kingdom include Hatshepsut, Thutmosis, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II.
Other major civilizations and empires that arose include the Indo-Europeans, the Phoenicians, the Hebrews, the Assyrians, and the Persians.
—December 2020
Lance Jones 